OAK HILL
INTERVENTIONS

This page is intended to give teachers a resource for obtaining class-wide or individual interventions that have been found to meet the criteria for “evidence-based” as required in the determination of a student’s responsiveness to intervention. Interventions are provided below in a variety of categories to meet your needs. For example, you might search according to the level of intensiveness. A low intensity intervention might be one that could be used as part of your universal instruction to an entire class. A moderate intensity intervention would be perhaps targeted to a subset or small group of students within your class. High intensity might be best-suited for one-to-one administration. Additionally, there are interventions that are searchable by appropriateness to grade level.

Academic Interventions

By area and intensity

Intensity Area	Low (Class-wide)	Moderate (Supported)	High
Reading
- Comprehension	Activating Prior Learning Anticipation Reading Guide Conversing with the Writer SQ3R Method for Textbook Readings Mining Information from Text Previewing the Chapter Question-Answer Relationships Reading Actively	Advanced Story Map Keyword: Memorization Strategy Student Comprehension Self-Check Main-Idea Maps Mental Imagery: Improving Recall Oral Recitation Lesson Prior Knowledge Question Generation Reciprocal Teaching Text Lookback
- Decoding	Drilling Error Words Tackling Multi-syllabic Words Teach a Hierarchy of Strategies	Rewards Word Attack Program	Start Making a Reader Today (SMART)
- Fluency	Using Corrective Feedback Paired Reading Repeated Reading	Assisted Reading Practice Peer Tutor Training Listening Passage Preview Paired Reading Repeated Reading	QuickReads
- General Instruction	Reading Centers	NA	NA
- Phonemic Awareness	Teaching Phonemic Awareness
- Phonological Awareness	Teaching Strategies	Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program (LiPS)	Lindamood Phonemic Sequencing Tutoring
- Vocabulary Development		Cover-Copy-Compare Peer-Assisted Learning	Peer-Assisted Learning
Math
- Computation	Explicit Time-Drills Errorless Learning Worksheets Jump-Start Academic Responding	Cover-Copy-Compare Incremental Rehearsal Problem Interspersal Self-Monitoring & Performance Feedback
- General Instruction	Peer-Guided Pause Using Response Cards Encourage Classroom “Math Talk” Wrap-Around Instruction Plan	NA	NA
- Reasoning	Draw to Clarify Understanding Four-Step Problem-Solving Approach Using Self-Correction Checklist Math Vocabulary: Preteach	Question-Answer Relationships
Written Language
- General Instruction	Memorize a Story Grammar Checklist Essentials Help for Struggling Writers Stimulate Interest w/ Autobiography
- Spelling	Spelling Study Strategy Self-Correction Methods	Cover-Copy-Compare
- Written Expression	Defends composition strategy Helpers comparison strategy Mapping writing strategy PLEASE metacognitive strategy POWER organizational strategy PROJECT strategy (adolescents) SCORE A: research paper writing SPACE planning strategy	Defends composition strategy Helpers comparison strategy Mapping writing strategy PLEASE metacognitive strategy POWER organizational strategy PROJECT strategy (adolescents) SCORE A: research paper writing SPACE planning strategy W-W-W composition strategy
- Writing Fluency	Daily Writing Self-Monitoring and Graphing
General Academic Strategies
- Test Taking	Math: Test-Preparation Strategies
- Non-participation	Using Class Journaling

By grade level and skill area

(Note: These links are to manuals in .PDF format from the Florida Center for Reading Research, but each one contains many, many strategies and reproducible materials.)

Grades

Area

Kindergarten-First

Second-Third

Fourth-Fifth

Phonological Awareness

Rhyme and Alliteration

Sentence Segmentation, Syllables, Onset & Rime

Phoneme Matching

Phoneme Isolating, Phoneme Segmenting

Phoneme Segmentation, Blending, Manipulating

Phoneme Matching and Isolating

Phoneme Blending and Segmenting

Phoneme Manipulating

Phonics

Letter Recognition

Letter-Sound Correspondence

Onset and Rime

Encoding and Decoding

High Frequency Words

Variant Correspondences

Syllable Patterns, Morpheme Structures

Letter-Sound Correspondence

High Frequency Words

Variant Correspondences

Syllable Patterns

Morpheme Structures

Variant Correspondences

Syllable Patterns

Morpheme Structures

Fluency

Comprehensive Manual

(Includes: Letter Recognition, Letter-Sound Correspondence, High Frequency Words, and Oral Reading

Letter-Sound Correspondence

Words

Phrases and Chunked Text

Connected Text

Word Parts and Words

Phrases, Chunked Text, Connected Text

Comprehension

Comprehensive Manual

(Includes Sentence Structure and Meaning, Monitoring for Meaning, Story Structure, and Main Idea/Summarizing)

Narrative Text Structure

Expository Text Structure

Text Analysis

Monitoring for Understanding

Narrative Text Structure

Expository Text Structure

Text Analysis

Monitoring for Understanding

Vocabulary

Comprehensive Manual

(Includes Word Identification/Words in Context, Word Categorization/Word Knowledge, Words that Describe/Word meaning, and Word Structure/Word Analysis)

Word Meaning and Analysis

Words in Context

Behavioral Interventions

Goal Area	Desired Behavior	¯ Problem Behavior
- Disruptive Behavior	Good Behavior Game
- Dropping out/School Refusal	Check and Connect
General Strategies
	Positive Reinforcement Differential Reinforcement Behavior Momentum Group Reinforcement Token Economy	Behavioral Contract Response Cost Overcorrection Required Relaxation Extinction (caution)
	Critters: Reinforcing Behavior Mystery Motivator Positive Peer Report Random Teacher Attention Response Effort Helping Victims of Bullying	Working with Defiant Students Points for Grumpy Response-Cost Lottery Response Effort Rubber Band Intervention Strategies for Emotional Students Talk Ticket Menu of Behavioral Strategies Managing Bullying Behavior Classroom Noise Reduction

Links to Sites with Evidence-Based Interventions

If you aren’t quite finding what you need in the lists above, then browse some of the sites below. They provide extensive information about evidence-based interventions as well as tools that might be helpful in creating materials for interventions.

Best Evidence Encyclopedia

Intervention Central

What Works Clearinghouse

Florida Center for Reading Research

Cognitive Strategy Instruction

Promising Practices Network

Social Programs That Work

Blueprints for Violence Prevention

Scientifically Based Research

Independent Practice: Set Up Reading Centers (Florida Center for Reading Research, 2005)

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

When students have mastered a reading skill, they can work independently at reading centers to practice and become more fluent in that skill under the watchful eye of the teacher.

The reading center is set up with fun and engaging activities designed to extend and reinforce literacy content presented by the teacher. Students work on independent reading-related activities individually or in pairs or groups. As examples of reading center choices, students may listen to taped books, read alone or to each other, use magnetic letters to spell a specified list of words, or create storyboards or comic strips that incorporate pictures and words. Each reading center activity is tied to specific student literacy goals. The activities in reading centers may change often to give children a chance to practice new skills and to keep the content of these centers fresh and engaging.

References

Florida Center for Reading Research (2005). Student center activities: Teacher resource guide. Retrieved August 20, 2006, from http://www.fcrr.org/Curriculum/pdf/TRG_Final_Part1.pdf

Activating Prior Knowledge (Hansen, & Pearson, 1983)

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

The instructor demonstrates to students how they can access their prior knowledge about a topic to improve comprehension of an article or story.

The instructor first explains the benefit of using prior knowledge. The instructor tells students that recalling their prior experiences (“their own life”) can help them to understand the content of their reading--because new facts make sense only when we connect them to what we already know. Next, the instructor demonstrates the text prediction strategy to the class by selecting a sample passage (displayed as an overhead) and using a “think-aloud” approach to illustrate the strategy steps: STEP 1: THINK ABOUT WHAT AND WHY: The teacher connects the article to be read with the instructor's own prior knowledge about the topic. The teacher might say, for example, “I am about to read a short article about [topic]. Before I read the article, though, I should think about my life experiences and what they might tell me about [topic]. By thinking about my own life, I will better understand the article.” STEP 2: SELECT MAIN IDEAS FROM THE ARTICLE TO POSE PRIOR-KNOWLEDGE AND PREDICTION QUESTIONS. The teacher chooses up to 3 main ideas that appear in the article or story. For each key idea, the instructor poses one question requiring that readers tap their own prior knowledge of the idea (e.g., “What are your own attitudes and experiences about [idea]?”) and another that prompts them to predict how the article or story might deal with the idea (e.g., "What do you think the article will say about [idea]?"). STEP 3: HAVE STUDENTS READ THE ARTICLE INDEPENDENTLY. Once the teacher has primed students' prior knowledge by having them respond to the series of prior-knowledge and prediction questions, students read the selection independently.

References

Hansen, J. & Pearson, P.D. (1983). An instructional study: Improving the inferential comprehension of good and poor fourth-grade readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 821-829.

Advanced Story Map

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

Students are taught to use a basic 'Story Grammar' to map out, identify and analyze significant components of narrative text (e.g., fiction, biographies, and historical accounts). Reserve at least a full instructional session to introduce this comprehension strategy. (For effective-teaching tips, consult the guidelines presented in Introducing Academic Strategies to Students: A Direct-Instruction Approach).

Materials:

Overhead transparencies of short stories or other narrative texts, transparency markers
Student copies of Advanced Story Map Worksheet, and practice narrative passages (optional) or reading/text books

Preparation:

· Prepare overheads of sample narrative passages.

Steps in Implementing This Intervention:

Step 1: Introduce the concept of a Story Grammar to students and preview main elements. (Refer to the Advanced Story Map Worksheet as a guide.) Tell students that a Story Grammar can help them to better understand a story's characters and events.

Step 2: Set aside at least four successive instructional days to introduce the major components of the Story Grammar: (A) Identifying important characters and their personalities and motivation, (B) Identifying main problem and significant plot developments, (C) Noting characters' attempts to solve problems, and (D) Identifying a narrative's overarching theme.

Interactive Instruction: Make the instruction of each story component highly interactive, with clear teacher demonstration and use of examples. 'Think aloud' as you read through a story with the class to illustrate to students how you arrive at your conclusions. Elicit student discussion about the story. As you fill out sections of the Advanced Story Map Worksheet on the overhead, have students write responses on their own copies of the worksheet.

Step 3: Error Correction: When students commit errors, direct them to the appropriate section of the narrative to reread it for the correct answer. Use guiding questions and modeling as necessary to help students to come up with an appropriate response.

Step 4: After students have been introduced to the key Story Grammar elements, the group is now ready to use the Grammar to analyze a sample narrative passage. Have students read independently through a story. Pause at pre-determined points to ask the group key questions (e.g., "Who is the main character? What is she like?"). After discussion, encourage students to write their answers on the Advanced Story Map Worksheet while you fill out the same worksheet as an overhead. Give specific praise to students for appropriately identifying Story Grammar elements.

Step 5: When students are able to use the Story Grammar independently, have them read through selected stories and complete the Advanced Story Map Worksheet on their own. Check students' responses and conference individually with those students requiring additional guidance and support.

Troubleshooting:
Students do not seem motivated to use the Story Grammar framework. To make a Story Grammar analysis more inviting, consider screening a video of a popular movie or television program. At key points, stop the tape, have students complete relevant sections of the Advanced Story Map Worksheet, and discuss the results. This exercise can be highly motivating and also makes clear to students that a Story Grammar is a universal tool that helps us understand narratives presented in any medium.

Some students do not appear to be successful in using the Story Grammar independently. Pull aside individuals or small groups of students who might be having similar problems mastering the Story Grammar. As you read together through a story, have students "think aloud" the strategies that they follow to identify Story Grammar elements. If you discover that a student is using a faulty approach (e.g., rotely selecting the first character named in the story as the main character) you can gently correct the student by modeling and demonstrating more appropriate strategies.

References

Gardill, M.C. & Jitendra, A.K. (1999). Advanced story map instruction: Effects on the reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 28, 2-17.

Anticipation Reading Guide (Duffelmeyer, 1994; Merkley, 1996)

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

To activate their prior knowledge of a topic, students complete a brief questionnaire on which they must express agreement or disagreement with 'opinion' questions tied to the selection to be read; students then engage in a class discussion of their responses.

The instructor first constructs the questionnaire. Each item on the questionnaire is linked to the content of the article or story that the students will read. All questionnaire items use a 'forced-choice' format in which the student must simply agree or disagree with the item. After students have completed the questionnaire, the teacher reviews responses with the class, allowing students an opportunity to explain their rationale for their answers. Then students read the article or story.

References

Duffelmeyer, F.A. (1994). Effective anticipation guide statements for learning from expository prose. Journal of Reading, 37, 452 - 457.

Merkley, D.J. (1996). Modified anticipation guide. Reading Teacher, 50, 365-368.

Building Comprehension of Textbook Readings Through SQ3R (Robinson, 1946)

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

Students grasp a greater amount of content from their textbook readings when they use the highly structured SQ3R ('Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review') process.

(1) SURVEY: Prior to reading a section of the textbook, the reader surveys the selection by examining charts, tables, or pictures, looking over chapter headings and subheadings, and reading any individual words or blocks of text highlighted by the publisher. (2) QUESTION: In preparation for reading, the reader next generates and writes down a series of key 'questions' about the content based on the material that he or she has surveyed. (3) READ: As the reader reads through the selection, he or she seeks answers to the questions posed. (4) RECITE: After finishing the selection, the reader attempts to recite from memory the answers to the questions posed. If stuck on a question, the reader scans the text to find the answer. (5) REVIEW: At the end of a study session, the reader reviews the list of key questions and again recites the answers. If the reader is unable to recall an answer, he or she goes back to the text to find it.

References

Robinson, F. P. (1946). Effective study. New York: Harper & Row

Conversing With the Writer Through Text Annotation (Harris, 1990; Sarkisian, Toscano, Tomkins-Tinch, & Casey, 2003)

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

Students are likely to increase their retention of information when they interact actively with their reading by jotting comments in the margin of the text.

Students are taught to engage in an ongoing 'conversation' with the writer by recording a running series of brief comments in the margins of the text. Students may write annotations to record their opinions of points raised by the writer, questions triggered by the reading, or vocabulary words that the reader does not know and must look up. NOTE: Because this strategy requires that students write in the margins of a book or periodical, text annotation is suitable for courses in which students have either purchased the textbook or have photocopies of the reading available on which to write.

References

Harris, Jane (1990). Text annotation and underlining as metacognitive strategies to improve comprehension and retention of expository text. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Reading Conference (Miami).

Sarkisian V., Toscano, M., Tomkins-Tinch, K., & Casey, K. (2003). Reading strategies and critical thinking. Retrieved October 15, 2006, from http://www.academic.marist.edu/alcuin/ssk/stratthink.html

Mining Information from the Text Book (Garner, Hare, Alexander, Haynes, & Vinograd, 1984)

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

With ‘text lookback’ the student increases recall of information by skimming previously read material in the text in a structured manner to look that information up.

First, define for the student the difference between ‘lookback’ and ‘think’ questions. ‘Lookback’ questions are those that tell us that the answer can be found right in the article, while ‘think’ questions are those that ask you to give your own opinion, belief, or ideas. When faced with a lookback question, readers may need to look back in the article to find the information that they need. But readers can save time by first skimming the article to get to the general section where the answer to the question is probably located. To skim efficiently, the student should (1) read the text-lookback question carefully and highlight the section that tells the reader what to look for (e.g., “What does the article say are the FIVE MOST ENDANGERED SPECIES of whales today?”), (2) look for titles, headings, or illustrations in the article that might tell the reader where the information that he or she is looking for is probably located, (3) read the beginning and end sentences in individual paragraphs to see if that paragraph might contain the desired information.

References

Garner, R., Hare, V.C., Alexander, P., Haynes, J., & Vinograd, P. (1984). Inducing use of a text lookback strategy among unsuccessful readers. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 789-798.

Previewing the Chapter (Gleason, Archer, & Colvin, 2002)

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

The student who systematically previews the contents of a chapter before reading it increases comprehension--by creating a mental map of its contents, activating prior knowledge about the topic, and actively forming predictions about what he or she is about to read.

In the previewing technique, the student browses the chapter headings and subheadings. The reader also studies any important graphics and looks over review questions at the conclusion of the chapter. Only then does the student begin reading the selection.

References

Gleason, M. M., Archer, A. L., & Colvin, G. (2002). Interventions for improving study skills. In M. A. Shinn, H. M. Walker & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp.651-680). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Question-Answer Relationships (QAR) (Raphael, 1982; Raphael, 1986)

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

Students are taught to identify 'question-answer relationships', matching the appropriate strategy to comprehension questions based on whether a question is based on fact, requires inferential thinking, or draws upon the reader's own experience.

Students learn that answers to RIGHT THERE questions are fact-based and can be found in a single sentence, often accompanied by 'clue' words that also appear in the question. Students are informed that they will also find answers to THINK AND SEARCH questions in the text--but must piece those answers together by scanning the text and making connections between different pieces of factual information. AUTHOR AND YOU questions require that students take information or opinions that appear in the text and combine them with the reader's own experiences or opinions to formulate an answer. ON MY OWN questions are based on the students' own experiences and do not require knowledge of the text to answer. Students are taught to identify question-answer relationships in class discussion and demonstration. They are then given specific questions and directed to identify the question type and to use the appropriate strategy to answer.

References

Raphael, T. (1982). Question-answering strategies for children. The Reading Teacher, 36, 186-190.

Raphael, T. (1986). Teaching question answer relationships, revisited. The Reading Teacher, 39, 516-522.

Reading Actively (Gleason, Archer, & Colvin, 2002)

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

By reading, recalling, and reviewing the contents of every paragraph, the student improves comprehension of the longer passage.

The instructor teaches students to first read through the paragraph, paying particular attention to the topic and important details and facts. The instructor then directs students to cover the paragraph and state (or silently recall) the key details of the passage from memory. Finally, the instructor prompts students to uncover the passage and read it again to see how much of the information in the paragraph the student had been able to accurately recall. This process is repeated with all paragraphs in the passage.

References

"Click or Clunk?": A Student Comprehension Self-Check

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

Students periodically check their understanding of sentences, paragraphs, and pages of text as they read. When students encounter problems with vocabulary or comprehension, they use a checklist to apply simple strategies to solve those reading difficulties.

Reserve at least a full instructional session to introduce this comprehension strategy. (For effective-teaching tips, consult the guidelines presented in Introducing Academic Strategies to Students: A Direct-Instruction Approach).

Materials:

Overhead transparencies of practice reading passages and My Reading Check Sheet, transparency markers
Student copies of practice reading passages (optional) or reading/text books, My Reading Check Sheet

Preparation:

Prepare overheads of sample passages.

Steps in Implementing This Intervention:

Step 1: Tell students that they will be learning ways to read more carefully. Hand out student copies of My Reading Check Sheet.

Review all of the reading strategies on the student handout.

Instruct students that, during any reading assignment, when they come to:

the end of each sentence, they should ask the question, "Did I understand this sentence?" If students understand the sentence, they say "Click!" and continue reading. If they do not understand, they say "Clunk!" and refer to the strategy sheet My Reading Check Sheet to correct the problem.
the end of each paragraph, they should ask the question, "What did the paragraph say?" If they do not know the main idea(s) of the paragraph, students refer to the strategy sheet My Reading Check Sheet to correct the problem.
the end of each page, they should ask the question, "What do I remember?" If they do not remember sufficient information, students refer to the strategy sheet My Reading Check Sheet to correct the problem.

Read through a sample passage with the class. At the end of each sentence, paragraph, and page, "think aloud" as you model use of the comprehension checks. (As you read each sentence, be sure to call out "Click!" when you and the class understand a sentence and "Clunk!" when you do not.)

Step 2: When students have learned to use the "Click or Clunk?" strategy, have them use it in independent reading assignments.

References

Anderson, T. (1980). Study strategies and adjunct aids. In R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W. F. Brewer (Eds.) Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Babbs, P. J. (1984). Monitoring cards help improve comprehension. The Reading Teacher, 38(2), 200-204.

Text Lookback

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

Text lookback is a simple strategy that students can use to boost their recall of expository prose by looking back in the text for important information.

Reserve several instructional sessions to introduce the steps in this comprehension strategy. (For effective-teaching tips, consult the guidelines presented in Introducing Academic Strategies to Students: A Direct-Instruction Approach).

Materials:

Overhead transparencies of short (100-200 word) passages from expository text and teacher-prepared text and lookback/think questions, transparency markers
Student copies of expository text passages and text-lookback /think questions

Preparation:

Create at least 3 lookback questions and one think question for each expository text passage selected

Steps in Implementing This Intervention:

Step 1: Introduce the text-lookback strategy by telling students that people cannot always remember everything that they read. If we read an article or book chapter, though, and are asked a 'fact' question about it that we cannot answer, we can always look back in the article to find the information that we need.

Step 2: Describe for the class the difference between lookback and think questions. An example of an explanation that you might use is:

"When we are asked questions about an article, sometimes the answer can be found directly in the article and sometimes it cannot be found directly."

"Lookback questions are those that tell us that the answer can be found right in the article. For example, if a question uses phrases such as in the article or in the author's words, these phrases would be clues that the question is a lookup question and that we can find the answer in the article."

"Think questions are those that ask you to give your own opinion, beliefs, or ideas. Our answers to these questions are based on our own ideas or thoughts about the topic. For example, if a question uses phrases such as in your opinion or what do you think, these phrases would be clues that the question is a think question and that the answer cannot be found in the article."

Step 3: Read aloud through the sample expository passage. Then read the series of 4 text-lookback/think questions to the class. As you read each question, highlight for students the word clues that indicate whether the question is a think or text-lookback question.

Step 4: Tell students that they must reread carefully to find the answer to a text-lookback question. However, they can save time by first skimming the article to get to the general section where the answer to the question is probably located. To skim, the student should:

read the text-lookback question carefully and underline the section that tells the reader what to look for (e.g., "What does the article say are the five most endangered species of whales today?").
look for titles, headings, or illustrations in the article that might tell the reader where the information that he or she is looking for is probably located
look at the beginning and end sentences in individual paragraphs to see if that paragraph might contain the desired information.

Step 5: "Thinking aloud", demonstrate for students how to skim the example article to locate efficiently the answer to each text-lookback question.

Step 6: Present additional example articles with text-lookback questions and monitor student mastery of the technique. Assign students to use the strategy independently when, under your supervision, they can distinguish reliably between think and text-lookback questions and are able to find the answers to text-lookback questions in the text.

Reference

Garner, R., Hare, V.C., Alexander, P., Haynes, J., & Vinograd, P. (1984). Inducing use of a text lookback strategy among unsuccessful readers. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 789-798.

Keywords: A Memorization Strategy

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

In this mnemonic (memorization) technique, students select the central idea of a passage and summarize it as a 'keyword'. Next, they recode the keyword as a mental picture and use additional mental imagery to relate other important facts to the keyword. They can then recall the keyword when needed, retrieving the related information.

Reserve at least a full instructional session to introduce this comprehension strategy. (For effective-teaching tips, consult the guidelines presented in Introducing Academic Strategies to Students: A Direct-Instruction Approach).

Materials:

Overhead transparencies of sample passages taken from expository texts, transparency markers
Student copies of Memorizing Facts: The Keyword Strategy and practice expository passages (optional) or text books

Preparation:

Prepare overheads of sample expository passages.
Review the procedures in the worksheet Memorizing Facts: The Keyword Strategy

Steps in Implementing This Intervention:

Step 1: Tell students that a good way to remember lots of facts is to use keywords. With the keyword approach, students:

highlight important facts or ideas in a passage
write a "gist" sentence that summarizes the highlighted ideas or facts
select a 'keyword' that will help them to recall a central idea about the article or passage.
create a mental picture to remember the keyword, and then
add details to the mental picture or create a story around the keyword to memorize additional facts or ideas.

If you have younger students (e.g., 5th grade or below), read through several sample passages with the group. Then display a drawing or collage that represents your own representation of the passage's main ideas as mental imagery. Using a "think-aloud" approach, explain the mental imagery of the picture and show how it encapsulates the main facts of the original passage. Show students how they can more easily recall facts using this approach.

If you have older students (e.g., 6th grade or above), read through several sample passages with the group. Write a description of the mental imagery that you used to memorize the keyword and related facts. Using a "think-aloud" approach, explain the mental imagery of your keyword and related story and show how the imagery encapsulates the main facts of the original passage. Show students how they can more easily recall facts using this approach.

Step 2: Pair students off and give them a sample passage. Assign each pair of students to:

identify the main idea of the passage
write a "gist" sentence to summarize the passage's main idea and related important facts
select a keyword based on the main idea
write out a description (or draw a picture) of the mental imagery that they will use to recall the main idea and important facts of the passage.

Step 3: When students are able to use the keyword strategy independently, have them use the technique when reading through expository passages. Monitor students' use of the method and their accuracy in recalling key facts. Conference individually with those students needing additional guidance and support.

References

Levin, J.R., Levin, M.E., Glasman, L.D., & Nordwall, M.B. (1992). Mnemonic vocabulary instruction: Additional effectiveness evidence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 17, 156-174.

Levin, J.R., Shriberg, L.K., & Berry, J.K. (1983). A concrete strategy for remembering abstract prose. American Educational Research Journal, 20, 277-290.

Peters, E.E. & Levin, J.R. (1986). Effects of a mnemonic imagery on good and poor readers' prose recall. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 179-192.

Main-Idea Maps

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

This simple strategy teaches students to generate a graphic organizer containing the main ideas of an expository passage.

Reserve at least a full instructional session to introduce this comprehension strategy. (For effective-teaching tips, consult the guidelines presented in Introducing Academic Strategies to Students: A Direct-Instruction Approach).

Materials:

Overhead transparencies of practice expository passages, transparency markers
Student copies of practice expository passages (optional) or reading/text books, Main Idea Graphic Organizer sheet or blank paper

Preparation:

Prepare overheads of sample passages.

Steps in Implementing This Intervention:

Step 1: Introduce the strategy by telling students that we can draw pictures, or Main Idea Maps, that help us to understand how the ideas of a multi-paragraph passage fit together. Present these three steps for mapping out the main ideas of an expository:

Locating the Main Ideas of Paragraphs. Read through a short (2-6 paragraph) practice expository passage with students.

On a blank overhead transparency or chart paper, begin building a graphic organizer by writing the title of the passage in the center. Draw a box around the title. (If the passage has no title, query the class and make up a suitable title based on their suggestions.) NOTE: Instead of drawing your own map, you can use the pre-formatted Main Idea Graphic Organizer that is included with this strategy.

Tell students that some paragraphs have summary sentences that state the main idea or "gist" of the paragraph or passage. Other paragraphs have implied main ideas, which the reader must figure out, based on key facts or ideas that they contain.

Go through each paragraph in the practice passage and identify the paragraph's main idea. Demonstrate how to summarize that main idea as a single, succinct phrase.

Building the Main Idea Graphic Organizer. As you summarize each paragraph's main idea, write the number of the paragraph and main-idea summary phrase on the graphic organizer. (Start writing at the upper left corner of the organizer sheet and continue clockwise around the page. Space the summary phrases to allow space to write under each. See the sample "Main Idea Graphic Organizer.").

Adding Key Facts. When you have written the main idea for all of the paragraphs onto the graphic organizer, return to the passage. For each paragraph, pull out 2-3 important facts, ideas, or supporting details. On the graphic organizer, write these key pieces of additional information under the main-idea phrase for that paragraph. Then draw a box around the main-idea and supporting details and move on to the next paragraph.

Step 2: Practice Using the Graphic Organizer as a Study Tool. Demonstrate how the completed Main Idea Graphic Organizer can be a useful method to summarize and review the content of expository passages. Give students new practice passages and have them create their own graphic organizers. Provide feedback and encouragement as needed.

References

Berkowitz, S.J. (1986). Effects of instruction in text organization on sixth-grade students' memory for expository reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 161-178.

Mental Imagery: Improving Text Recall

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

By constructing "mental pictures" of what they are reading and closely studying text illustrations, students increase their reading comprehension.

Overhead transparencies of sample passages taken from expository or narrative texts, transparency markers
Student copies of practice expository or narrative passages (optional) or reading/text books

Preparation:

Prepare overheads of sample expository or narrative passages.

Steps in Implementing This Intervention:

Step 1: Tell students that they can remember more of what they read by:

making pictures in their mind of what they are reading
carefully studying pictures or illustrations that appear in their reading or text books

Step 2: Using a "think-aloud" approach, read through a short sample narrative or expository passage. Pause at several points to tell the class what "mental pictures" come to your mind as you read; ask students to describe their own mental imagery as they react to the same passage. As you come across pictures or illustrations in the passage, study them and reflect aloud on what clues they give you about the passage's meaning.

Step 3: Read aloud from additional passages. Stop at key points in the passage and call on students to relate their mental imagery evoked by the passage or to give their interpretation of the significance of illustrations or pictures.

Step 4: When students are able to use mental imagery independently, use a prompt at the start of reading assignments to cue them to use the strategy. You might say, for example, "Now we are going to read about what life is like in a country village in Zimbabwe. Remember to make pictures in your head about what you are reading and study the pictures carefully."

References

Gambrell, L.B. & Bales, R.B. (1986). Mental imagery and the comprehension-monitoring performance of fourth- and fifth-grade poor readers. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 454-464.

Gambrell, L.B. & Jawitz, P.B. (1993). Mental imagery, text illustrations, and children's story comprehension and recall. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 265-273.

Oral Recitation Lesson

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

This intervention builds student motivation and interest by having them participate along with the teacher in repeated public readings of a story across several days. Throughout the process, the entire class discusses the work as literature.

Reserve several instructional sessions to introduce the steps in this comprehension strategy. (For effective-teaching tips, consult the guidelines presented in Introducing Academic Strategies to Students: A Direct-Instruction Approach).

Materials:

Teacher and student copies of reading series or literature books

Preparation:

Select and become familiar with a story to be read by the class across multiple days.

Steps in Implementing This Intervention:

Step 1: On day 1, introduce the story, giving general information about the characters, setting, and plot. Engage students in a discussion about what they predict might happen in the story.

Read the entire story aloud to the class while students follow along in their own books. Read in an expressive manner (e.g., using a dramatic voice to emphasize dire or urgent situations, changing inflection and tone of voice to reflect the dialog of various characters, etc.). Stop periodically in your reading to ask reaction questions ("How do you feel about the predicament that Mr. Blaha finds himself in? Has anything like that ever happened to you?") and prediction questions ("OK, we know that Mr. Blaha is in trouble because he is lost in the cave with no flashlight. What do you think he will do next?").
At the conclusion of the story, discuss its narrative elements with the class. For example, you might ask students to:

describe the personality of the main character
talk about other important characters in the story and their foibles or qualities
give details about the time and setting of the story
pinpoint the central problem(s) or challenge(s) that the main character faces
describe how the main character responded to various plot developments
decide what overarching theme or lesson the story might convey.

Wrap up the lesson by summarizing the story. Be sure to fold into your summary key points that came up in class discussion. Use this opportunity to highlight and define new vocabulary that appeared in the story.

Step 2: On day 2, give a thumbnail review of the story that you read to the class on Day 1.

Inform students that in this session they will have the chance to practice reading the story aloud. Their goal is to read selections from the story with fluency, and feeling.

Read an opening passage from the story. As you read, stop occasionally to point out to students how you use expressive qualities of your voice to make the story "come alive."

Read another short passage. Then direct the entire class to read the same passage aloud. Next, select a single student to read the passage, directing him or her to use an expressive voice. If the student reader has difficulty, model by reading the passage aloud again. At the end of the student's reading, gently correct any reading mistakes that interfere with the story's meaning and praise the student. Ask other students to read additional passages aloud as time allows.

Assign each student in the class a short passage from the story that they will be responsible for reading aloud at the next session. (Day 3). Allow them time to practice their passage (or assign as homework).

Step 3: On day 3, read an introductory passage from the story aloud, again with expression. As you come to a passage assigned to a student, ask that student to read his or her section aloud. Provide supportive feedback to the student about his or her performance and ask other students to comment on the reading as well. Continue through the story until all students have read their assigned selections.

References

Hoffman, J.R. (1987). Rethinking the role of oral reading in basal instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 87, 367-373.

Reutzel, D.R. & Hollingsworth, P.M. (1993). Effects of fluency training on second graders' reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Research, 86, 325-331.

Prior Knowledge: Activating the 'Known'

School-Based Intervention Idea from www.interventioncentral.org

Through a series of guided questions, the instructor helps students activate their prior knowledge of a specific topic to help them comprehend the content of a story or article on the same topic. Linking new facts to prior knowledge increases a student's inferential comprehension (ability to place novel information in a meaningful context by comparing it to already-learned information).

Reserve at least a full instructional session to introduce this comprehension strategy. (For effective-teaching tips, consult the guidelines presented in Introducing Academic Strategies to Students: A Direct-Instruction Approach).

Materials:

Overhead transparencies of practice reading passages and sample Text Prediction questions, transparency markers
Student copies of practice reading passages (optional) or reading/text books, blank paper and pencil or pen

Preparation:

Prepare overheads of sample passages.
Locate 3 main ideas per passage and-for each idea-develop a prior knowledge question and a prediction question (see below).

Steps in Implementing This Intervention:

Step 1: Introduce this strategy to the class:

Explain the Benefit of Using Prior Knowledge to Understand a Reading Passage: Tell students that recalling their prior experiences ("their own life") can help them to understand the content of their reading. New facts make sense only when we connect them to what we already know.

Demonstrate the Text Prediction Strategy. Select a sample passage and use a "think-aloud" approach to show students how to use the text-prediction strategy. (Note: To illustrate how the strategy is used, this intervention script uses the attached example,Attending

Public School in Japan.)

Prompt Students to Think About 'What and Why': Describe what strategy you are about to apply and the reason for doing so. You might say, for example, "I am about to read a short article on public schools in Japan. Before I read the article, though, I should think about my life experiences and what they might tell me about the topic that I am about to read about. By thinking about my own life, I will better understand the article."

Preview Main Ideas from the Reading and Pose Prior Knowledge and Prediction Questions. One at a time, pose three main ideas that appear in the article or story. For each key idea, present one question requiring that readers tap their own prior knowledge of the topic and another that prompts them to predict how the article or story might deal with the topic.

Here is a typical question cycle, composed of a main idea statement, prior knowledge question, prediction question, and student opportunity to write a response.